—> See also: Citing Etiquette
Citing as evidence
Citing is the evidence base of your argument. Every claim that relies on external information — so not your own data or logical deduction — needs a citation. How you use citations determines whether readers agree with your reasoning.
How to use citations
Cite whenever you are using someone else’s ideas, data, or words — this includes paraphrasing. If it’s not your original thought, give credit (and if it is your original thought, but someone else published about it first, give credit too).
Who you need to cite, depends on what you are trying to do. Here are some common functions:
Introduction
- Establish significance: Cite high-impact work showing the real-world importance of the phenomenon
- Expose the gap: Cite recent reviews or key papers that reveal the missing piece (the “however…” moment)
Methods
- Defend your approach: Cite methodological precedents that validate your design choices
Discussion
- Validate your findings: Cite corroborating studies to show your results fit established patterns. Example: “Our results align with Smith et al. (2020), who found similar patterns in temperate systems.”
- Differentiate from literature: Cite conflicting work to highlight context-dependency or novelty. Example: “Unlike Jones et al. (2019), we observed no effect of X, suggesting that Y may be context-dependent.”
- Explain mechanisms: Cite methodological or theoretical studies to account for discrepancies. Example: “This discrepancy may reflect differences in sampling duration (Brown 2018; Lee 2021).”
Tip
Include a mix of older and newer references to show that you know both the history and the current state of the field.
Avoid predatory journals
Choose sources that are as trustworthy and relevant as possible. If in doubt, check the journal’s reputation carefully. Not all journals have a good peer-review protocol in place.
How many citations?
Consider who will read your work. Experts in your field may not need citations for very familiar concepts, while a broader audience will appreciate more guidance. Hence, you need to use an appropriate number of citations depending on the context and your audience:
- Well-known concepts for your audience: 1 citation, or sometimes even none, is enough.
- New or less familiar concepts: 3–5 citations is a good range.
- Don’t overdo it: Too many citations can make you sound unsure of your own ideas. For example, citing 10 papers for a simple point is usually too much (but if they also show conflicting results, cite them all to show there a knowledge gap in your field).